WHO guidelines
✓ Foaming index
✓ Aflatoxins
✓ Arsenic
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Content
WHO guidelines for the standardization of crude drugs and extracts
with special emphasis
on pharmacological and toxicological evaluation
✓ Foaming index
✓ Aflatoxins
✓ Arsenic
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Objectives
• At the end of this lecture, student will be able to
✓ Discuss the principle and procedure involved in the determination
of
➢ Foaming index
➢ Aflatoxins
➢ Arsenic
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Determination of Foaming Index
➢ Saponins – persistent foam – shaken
➢ Foaming ability – measured in terms of Foaming Index
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Determination of Foaming Index
Procedure
1 g of coarsely powdered herbal material
transfer to a 500-ml conical flask
100 ml of boiling water
Moderate boiling for 30 minutes
Cool and filter into a 100-ml volumetric flask
Add sufficient water through the filter to dilute to volume
Pour the decoction into 10 stoppered test-tubes (height 16 cm, diameter 16 mm)
(successive portions of 1 ml, 2 ml, 3 ml up to 10 ml)
adjust the volume with water to 10 ml
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Determination of Foaming Index
Procedure
Stopper, shake in lengthwise for 15 seconds, two shakes per second
Allow to stand for 15 minutes
Measure the foam height
.
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Determination of Foaming Index
Evaluation of result
If the height of the foam in every tube is less than 1 cm
Foaming index is less than 100
If a height of foam of 1 cm is measured in any tube,
the volume of the herbal material decoction in this tube (a) is used to determine
the index
If this tube is the first or second tube in a series, an intermediate dilution is
prepared in a similar manner to obtain a more precise result
If the height of the foam is more than 1 cm in every tube
Foaming index is over 1000
Repeat the determination using a new series of dilutions of the decoction
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Determination of Foaming Index
Calculate the foaming index
a = the volume in ml of the decoction used for preparing the dilution in the
tube where foaming to a height of 1 cm is observed
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Determination of Aflatoxins
✓ Only products that have a history of aflatoxin contamination need to be
tested
Tests for aflatoxins
✓ Detect the presence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, which are highly toxic
contaminants in any material of plant origin
Procedure
✓ Does not require the use of toxic solvents like
Chloroform
Dichloromethane etc
✓ Multifunctional column
➢ Lipophilic and charged active sites
➢ High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
➢ Fluorescence detection to determine aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2
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Determination of Aflatoxins
Advantages of multifunctional column
✓ High total recoveries of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 (>85%)
✓ Column can be kept at room temperature for long time prior to use
Standard solutions of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 (2.5 ng/ml)
Standard stock solution
Weigh exactly 1.0 mg each of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2
Dissolve in 50 ml of toluene-acetonitrile (9:1) (20 μg/ml)
keep in a tightly sealed container and store in refrigerator at 4OC in dark
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Determination of Aflatoxins
Working standard solution
0.5 ml of standard stock solution added to toluene acetonitrile (9:1)
to 200 ml (50 ng/ml)
Standard solution
1.0 ml of working standard solution, add to toluene acetonitrile (9:1)
solution to 20 ml
(Final standard solution) (2.5 ng/ml)
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Determination of Aflatoxins
Standard solution for liquid chromatography analysis
Transfer 0.25 ml of the final standard solution to a glass centrifuge tube
Evaporate to dryness at 40OC or by using a nitrogen air stream
To derivatize aflatoxins B1 and G1 (precolumn derivatization)
Add 0.1 ml of trifluoroacetic acid to the residue in the tube
Tightly seal and shake vigorously
Allow to stand at room temperature for 15 min in dark
Add 0.4 ml of acetonitrile : water (1:9)
20-μl portion of the solution – subjected to liquid chromatography
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Determination of Aflatoxins
Preparation of sample
Grind the herbal material
50-g test sample with 400 ml of acetonitrile-water (9:1)
Extract by shaking for 30 minutes or by mechanical blender for 5 minutes
Filter or centrifuge
Transfer 5-ml portion or the top clean layer, to a multifunctional column (MultiSep
#228 cartridge column or Autoprep MF-A)
Flow rate of 1 ml/minute
Aflatoxins present pass through the column as the first eluate
First 1-ml of the eluate collected as test solution
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Determination of Aflatoxins
Preparation of sample
Evaporate 0.5 ml of test solution to dryness at 40OC or by using a nitrogen air
To derivatize aflatoxins B1 and G1 (precolumn derivatization)
Add 0.1 ml of trifluoroacetic acid to the residue in the tube
Tightly seal and shake vigorously
Allow to stand at room temperature for 15 min in dark
Add 0.4 ml of acetonitrile : water (1:9) solution
20-μl portion of the sample solution – subjected to liquid chromatography
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Determination of Aflatoxins
Method
Liquid chromatography conditions
✓ Mobile phase – acetonitrile-methanol-water (1:3:6)
✓ De-gas the mobile phase by sonication
✓ Octadecyl-silica gel (ODS) column ( Inertsil ODS-3 (4.6 mm ID× 250 mm,
3 μm)
✓ Column temperature: 400C
✓ Flow rate – 1 ml/minute
✓ Aflatoxin and its derivatives detected at the excitation and emission
wavelengths of 365 nm and 450 nm, respectively
✓ Injection volume is 20 μl
If impurity peak overlaps the peaks corresponding to aflatoxins – alternative
liquid chromatography conditions
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Determination of Aflatoxins
Method
Alternative liquid chromatography conditions
✓ Mobile phase – methanol-water (3:7)
✓ De-gas mobile phase by sonication
✓ Fluorocarbonated column (Wako-pack Fluofix 120E)
✓ Column temperature 400C
✓ Flow rate – 1 ml/minute
✓ Aflatoxin and its derivatives are detected at the excitation and emission
wavelengths of 365 nm and 450 nm, respectively
✓ Injection volume is 20 μl
Interpretation of the results
✓ Compare the retention time of peak area or peak heights standard and sample
✓ If sample bigger than standard – positive
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Determination of Arsenic
Limit test for arsenic
✓ Abundant in nature
✓ Test method uses colorimetry, NOT toxic mercuric bromide paper
✓ Method uses N-N-diethylmethyldithiocarbamate in pyridine
and it reacts with hydrogen arsenide to afford a red–purple complex
✓ Limit expressed in terms of arsenic (III) trioxide (As2O3)
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Determination of Arsenic
Preparation of test solution
Sample in crucible of platinum, quartz or porcelain
Add 10 ml of magnesium nitrate hexahydrate in ethanol (95) (1 in 10)
Burn ethanol, heat gradually, ignite to incinerate
If carbonized material still remains
Moisten with a small quantity of nitric acid and ignite again
After cooling, add 3 ml of hydrochloric acid
Heat in a water bath to dissolve the residue
(Test solution)
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Determination of Arsenic
Standard solutions
Absorbing solution for hydrogen arsenide
Dissolve 0.50 g of silver N,N-diethyldithiocarbamate in pyridine to make
100 ml (protected from light, in a cold place)
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Determination of Arsenic
Standard arsenic stock solution
Weigh accurately 0.100 g of finely powdered arsenic (III) trioxide
Add 5 ml of NaOH solution
Add dilute H2SO4 to neutralize
Add a further 10 ml of dilute H2SO4
Add freshly boiled and cooled water- make exactly 1000 ml
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Determination of Arsenic
Standard arsenic solution
Pipette 10 ml of standard arsenic stock solution
add 10 ml of dilute H2SO4
Add freshly boiled and cooled water – make exactly 1000 ml
(Each ml of the solution contains 1 μg of arsenic (III) trioxide (As2O3))
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Determination of Arsenic
Procedure
Unless otherwise specified, use the mentioned apparatus
Test solution in the generator bottle A
Add 1 drop of methyl orange
Neutralize with ammonia, ammonia solution or dilute HCl
Add 5 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid (1 in 2)
Add 5 ml potassium iodide
Allow to stand for 2–3 minutes
Add 5 ml of acidic tin (II) chloride
Allow to stand for 10 minutes www.DuloMix.com
Determination of Arsenic
Procedure
Add water to make 40 ml
Add 2 g of zinc for arsenic analysis and immediately
connect the rubber stopper H fitted with B and C with
the generator bottle A
Transfer 5 ml of absorbing solution for hydrogen
arsenide to the absorber tube D
Insert the tip of C to the bottom of the absorber tube D
Immerse the generator bottle A up to the shoulder in
water maintained at 25 °C
Allow to stand for 1 hour
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Determination of Arsenic
Procedure
Disconnect the absorber tube
Add pyridine to make 5 ml, if necessary
Observe the colour of the absorbing solution
Colour produced is not more intense than
the standard colour
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Summary
✓ Saponins – persistent foam – shaken, Foaming ability – measured in
terms of Foaming Index
✓ Aflatoxins – Only products that have a history of aflatoxin
contamination need to be tested
✓ Tests for aflatoxins
Detect the presence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, which are highly
toxic contaminants in any material of plant origin
✓ Arsenic – Method uses N-N-diethylmethyldithiocarbamate in pyridine
and it reacts with hydrogen arsenide to afford a red–purple complex
✓ Limit expressed in terms of arsenic (III) trioxide (As2O3)
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Thank You
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