Carbohydrates
Contents:
Carbohydrates containing drugs
➢Honey
➢Starch
➢Agar
➢Guar gum
➢Tragacanth
➢Sodium alginate
➢Pectin
➢Acacia
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HONEY
• Synonyms:
Madhu, honey purified, mel shehad, asal
• Biological source:
Sugar secretion, deposited in honey comb by bees, Apis melifera, Apis
dorsata & other species of Apis
• Family: apidae
• Geographical sources:
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, California and India
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Preparation:-
• The nectar of the flower is a watery solution containing 25%
sucrose and 75% water.
• The worker bee sucks this nectar through its hollow tube of
mouth (proboscis) and deposits in honey-sac located in
abdomen.
• The enzyme invertase present in saliva of the bee converts
nectar into invert sugar, which is partially utilized by the bee
and the remaining is deposited into honey comb.
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Preparation:-
• Honey comb is smoked to remove the bees and honey is obtained
by applying the pressure to it or allowing it to drain naturally.
• The honey of commerce is heated to 80oC and allowed to stand.
• The impurities which float over the surface are skimmed off and
liquid diluted with water to produce honey of 1.35 density.
• Natural honey has the density of 1.47.
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• Many a time, honey is extracted from the comb by
centrifugation.
• It must be free from foreign substances.
• Honey is liable to fermentation, unless it is suitable processed.
• Honey is heated to 80oC before it is sent to the market, so as to
avoid fermentation.
• It should be cooled rapidly or else it darkens in color on keeping.
• If necessary (and if not prepared by centrifugation method),
honey is required to be filtered through wet cloth or flannel.
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Description
• Colour- Pale yellow-yellowish brown
• Odour- Characteristics & pleasant odour
• Taste- Sweet & faintly acid taste
• Density – 1.35wt/ml
• Specific Rotation – +30 to -100
• Total ash: 0.1 to 0.8%
• Pass limit test Cl & SO4
• Syrupy Thick liquid, Translucent when fresh & o keeping it
becomes opaque & granular due to crystallisation of glucose
• Soluble in – water, Insoluble in – alcohol
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Chemical constituents
• It is an aqueous solution of
• Glucose 35% (+ or – 3%),
• fructose 45% (+ or – 5%) and
• sucrose about 2%.
• Maltose, gum, traces of succinic acid, acetic acid, dextrin,
formic acid.
• Coloring matters, enzymes (invertase, diastase, inulase) and
traces of vitamins.
• Proteins and pollen grains from various flower
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Uses
• Demulcent
• Sweetening agent
• Nutrient – infants & patients
• Antiseptic – burns & wounds
• Common ingredient – cough mixture, cough drops &
vehicle for ayurvedic preparation
• Used in the preparation of creams, lotions, soft drinks,
candies
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Polysaccharides
e.g. Starch, Dextrin
STARCH
• Primary product of photosynthesis
• Synonym:
Amylum
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Biological source
• It is the most common carbohydrate reserve and is
food in varying amounts in almost all plant members.
• It is commercially obtained from the following raw materials
• Maize – Zea mays
• Rice – Oryza sativa
• Wheat – Triticum aestivum (gramineae)
• Potato – Solanum tuberosum (solanaceae)
Geographical Source:
tropical & sub tropical countries
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Preparation:
Depending upon the raw material to be used for processing or
type of the starch to be produced different process are used for
the commercial manufacture of starch.
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Preparation:
• Potato starch :- The potatoes are washed to remove the earthy
matter. They are crushed or cut and converted into a slurry.
• Slurry is filtered to remove the cellular matter.
• As potatoes do not contain gluten they are very easy to process
further.
• After filtration, the milky slurry containing starch is
purified by centrifugation and washing.
• Then it is dried and sent to the market.
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Rice Starch :-
• The broken species of rice resulted during the polishing are used
for processing.
• The pieces of rice are soaked in water with dilute sod. Hydroxide
soln.{.5%}, which causes softening and dissolution of the gluten.
• After this, the soaked rice pieces are crushed and starch
prepared as described under potato starch
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Maize Starch [Corn Starch] :-
• Maize grains are wash thoroughly with water to remove the
adhered organic matter after which they are soften by keeping in
warm water for 2-3 days.
• Sufficient sulphur dioxide is passed to the medium to prevent
fermentation.
• The swollen kernels are passed through attrition mill to break the
grains so as to separate endosperm and outermost coating of
grains. At this point special attention is given to
separate the germ{Embryo}.
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• This is effected by addition of water where in germs float and are
separated.
• The water which is used to soften the grains dissolves most of
the minerals, soluble proteins and carbohydrates from the grains.
• Water being rich in all this contents is used as a culture medium
for the production of antibiotics like penicillin.
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• The separated germs are used to prepare the germ oil by
expression method known as corn oil.
• The oil contains fatty acids like inoleic and
linoleic acids and vit E.
• It is used commercially for preparing soap.
• The starchy material contains gluten of this is
removed by simple sieving and then by washing.
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• Starch being heavier, settles at the bottom and is followed by
gluten.
• Several treatments with cold water wash the starch effectively,
which is then centrifuge or filter-pressed and finally, dried in
flash dryers on a moving belt dryer.
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Wheat starch :-
• Wheat flour is converted into dough and kept for a while
• The gluten in the dough swells and the masses are taken to
grooved rollers wherein water is poured over them with constant
shaking.
• The starchy liquid coming out of the rollers processed
conveniently to take out starch which is then dried and packed
suitably.
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Description:
• Fine powder or irregular, angular masses readily reducible to
powder.
• Colour: rice-white, wheat- cream, potato- slightly yellowish
• Odour: Odourless
• Taste: Mucilagenous
• Insoluble in cold water & alcohol
• Ash – not more than 0.3% for potato, wheat & maize
not more than 0.6% – rice
• Loss on drying– not more than 15% rice, wheat & maize
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Microscopic characters
1. Rice starch: The granules are simple or compound.
Simple (polyhedral), 2-12 micron dia. or
compound (ovoid-egg shaped) 12-30 x7-12µ. They may contain 2-
150 components.
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2.Wheat starch: simple lenticular ( shape like biconvex lens)
granule, circular or oval in shape, 5-50µ dia., hilum ( point in a
starch granule around which the layers of starch are deposited) –
centre & concentric faintly marked striations. 2- 4 components are
observed.
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3. Maize starch: polyhedral or rounded granule, 5- 31 dia., with
distinct cavity in the centre
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4. Potato starch: simple granule – sub spherical, ovoid, sizes
vary from 30- 100 µ, hilum is present near the narrower end with
marked concentric striation (number of tiny parallel grooves,
scratches)
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Chemical constituent
• Chemically it contains two different polysaccharides viz.
amylose (β-amylose) and amylopectin (α-amylose).
•Amylose is water soluble and amylopectin is water- insoluble
•Amylose gives blue colour with iodine, while amylopectin gives
bluish black colouration.
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Identification:-
1) Boil 1 g of starch with 15 ml of water and cooled. The
translucent viscous jelly is produced.
2) The above jelly turns deep blue by the addition the solution
of iodine.
The blue colour disappears on warming and reappears on cooling.
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Uses
• Nutrient, demulcent, protective, adsorbent
• In preparation of dusting talcum powder – skin
• Antidote in I2 poisoning
• Disintegrating agent in pills & tablets
• Diluent in dry extraction
• Diagnostic aid – identification of crude drugs
• Glycerine of starch – emollient & as a base suppositories
• Starting material for mfg. of liquid Glucose, dextrose,
dextrin
• Industry – for sizing of paper & cloth
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Substitutes and Adulterant:
Tapioca starch or cassava or Brazilian arrow root, this
starch obtained from manihot esculenta (euphorbiaceae
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AGAR
Synonyms: Agar-agar, Vegetable Gelatin, Japanese or Chinese
Gelatin, Japanese Isinglass.
Biological Source: It is the bleached, dried gelatinous substance
obtained from the various species of the genus Gelidium, family
Gelidaceae.
Japanese agar is obtained from Gelidium amansii.
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• It is also obtained from several other species of red algae like
genus Gracilaria (Gracilariaceae) and pterocladia
(Gelidaceae).
Geographical Sources:
Japan, Australia, new zealand, USA and India
India: coastal region of bay of bengal
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Collection and Preparation:
In the coastal area of Japan, the algae are cultivated in special
areas. The poles are planted in the sea to form supports for the
development of algae.
The poles are withdrawn from time to time and the algae are
stripped off in the months from May to October.
The sea weeds are scrapped from the bamboos. The algae are
dried, beaten and shaken to remove any earthy material adhering
to it like shells, sand, etc.
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• It is then bleached by watering and drying in the sun. The
algae are then boiled with acidulated water for several hours.
• A mucilaginous decoction is formed, which is filtered while
hot through a linen cloth. On cooling, a jelly is produced which
is cut into bars and subsequently strips are produced.
• The manufacturing of agar takes place only in winter season.
The moisture is removed by freezing, thawing and drying at
about 35 ° C.
• In America, the modern method deep- freezing is being
utilized.
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Morphological Characters:
Color: yellowish grey or white to nearly colorless.
Odor: odourless
Taste: mucilaginous
Shape: occurs in two forms:
1) Coarse powder or flakes
2) bundles of translucent, and crumpled, strips, 2-5mm wide.
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• Size: Sheets – 45 to 60 cm long, 10-15 cm wide. Bands – 4 cm
wide, Strips – 4 mm width, Strips – translucent, lustrous &
slender
• Fracture: Tough when damp and brittle when dry.
• insoluble in water, slowly soluble in hot water;
& insoluble in organic solvents
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Standards:
• Acid-insoluble ash – not more than 1.0%
• Sulphated ash – not more than 5.0%
• Foreign organic matter – not more than 1.0%
• L.O.D. – not more than 18.0%
• Starch – negative with I2 solution
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Chemical Constituents:
• It is a heterogeneous polysaccharide composed of two
principal constituents: agarose and agaropectin.
• Agarose represents the gel strength and agaropectin is
responsible for the viscosity of the agar solutions.
• Agarose: D-galactose & 3.6 anhydro L-galactose units. It
contaiins about 3.5% cellulose & 6% N containing subs.
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Agaropectin: sulphonated polysaccharides in which
galactose and uronic acid units are partly esterified with
sulphuric acid.
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Identification test
1. Boil 1.5 g agar with 100 ml water. Cool the solution to room
temp. it forms stiff jelly.
2. To 5ml of 0.5% solution of drug in water + 0.5ml of HCl +
heat on a water bath for about 30 min. neutralize the solution
and divide it into two portions.
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To one portion, add Fehling’s solution and heat on a water bath, a
red precipitate is formed.
To other portion, add solution of BaCl2. A slight, white
precipitate is formed (tragacanth gives no precipitate) (on
hydrolyzing, galactose and sulphate ions are produced, former
reducing Fehling’s solution and the latter precipitating with
BaCl2)
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3. Moisten the drug with a solution of Ruthenium red, a pink color is
produced.
4. Agar+M/20 iodine solution-Deep crimson (deep red color) to
brown colour (differentiates it from accacia and tragacanth)
5. Agar does not contain N so the following tests of gelatin are
negative
a. Heated with soda-lime No ammonia is
produced
b. 0.2% solution of agar with No ppt
tannic acid solution.
c. Millon’s reagent.
No precipitate
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Uses:
• Demulcent, nutrient and emulsifier
• The gels of pure agarose are used for the
electrophoresis of proteins.
• For the preparation of culture media
• Emulsifying agent
• In the treatment of constipation the action depends on its
property of absorbing and holding water, along with it becoming a
lubricant
• In affinity chromatography
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• In Japan and China long esteemed as a food in
making jellies and candy; thickening soups, ice
cream, fruits, meats, fish, etc.
• Impression material in dentistry
• It is a valuable dressing for wounds
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Guar gum
Synonyms
Jaguar gum, guar flour
Biological source
It is obtained from the endosperm of the seeds of Cyamopsis
tetragonolobus belonging to
Family: Leguminosae
Geographical sources:
India, Pakistan, USA, Africa, Australia. In India it is cultivated
in Maharashtra, Gujarawt,wwK.DaurlnoaMtaixk.cao,mRajasthan 45
Guar gum seeds
Guar gum
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Preparation
• Gum is present in the endosperm of the seed.
• Seed consists of 14-17% husk, 35-40% endosperm
and 45-50% cotyledons containing embryo.
• It is prepared from the white well developed seeds.
• Seeds are from foreign matter.
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• Seeds are put into a frinder to get bifurcated guar seeds. Seeds are
separated into husk and cotyledons containing embryo.
• Cotyledons separated from the endosperm by winnowing and
sifting fetch very high prince in the marked as a cattle feed.
• The endosperms. i.e. crude guar gum is pulverised by the means
of micro-pulverizer and grinding for 15 min. The endosperm
being harder is not affected by micro- pulverizer. The portion of
cotyledons adhering to the endosperm is soft.
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And is converted into fine powder which is separated by sifting.
The crude guar gum is now free of cotyledons, the main
impurity is the gum.
The crude guar gum thus separated is put into pulverizer and
grinding is continued for 3-4 hours followed by sifting.
This process is repeated about 5 to 6 times for several hours to give
white colored guar gum. Finally, it is sifted through sieves of 40
to 60 mesh to give granular and powdered gum.
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Chemical constituents
• It is divided into water soluble and water insoluble parts.
• Water soluble fraction consist of about 85% of gum is know as
guaran, which on hydrolysis yields 65% galactose and 35%
mannose which is combined by glycosidic linkage.
• It also contains 5-7% proteins.
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Identification tests
1) Guar gum + weak solution of iodine—no olive green color.
2) Guar gum + solution of ruthenium red— the gummy solution
does not acquire pink color (distinction from agar and sterculia
gum)
3) Guar gum + About 2% solution of lead acetate—gives precipitate
with the solution of guar gum.
4) Dissolve 0.5gm of guar gum in 20ml of water by shaking. To it,
add 0.5 ml. hydrogen peroxide and 0.5ml. 1% solution of
benzidine in alcohol. No blue color is produced (distinction from
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USES
Medicinal uses:
• Appetite suppressant and bulk laxative
• Treatment of peptic ulcer
• Oral hypoglycemic agent
• Antihyperlipidemic agent
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Industrial uses:
• Thickening agent and emulsifying agent as thickening power of
guar gum is 5-8 times more than starch
• Binder and disintegrating agent for tablets.
• Food processing, printing, polishing and textile industries
• Paper industries
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TRAGACANTH
Synonyms
Gum Tragacanth, Gummi Tragacanthae, Gum Dragon
Greek – tragos (goat) & akantha (horn)
Biological source
Dried gummy exudation obtained by incision from stem &
branches of Astragalus gummifer & other species of Astragalus
Family: Leguminosae
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Geographical sources
Indigenous – iran, greece, turkey, iraq, syria
India – Garhwal, Kumaon, Central Punjab, North syria &
Iran – supply Persian Tragacanth
Smyrna tragacanth – exported from Smyrna port in Asiatic Turkey
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Preparation
• Shrub – thorny
• Altitude: 1000-3000m
• Gum exuding out immediately after injury
• Tragacanth gum is formed as a result of transformation of the cells
of pith and medullary rays into gummy substance incisions are
more on various parts of stem and fluid which oozes out is
collected after drying.
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• Tragacanth is found in irregular flattened flakes with ribbon
like appearance depending upon the incision’s made on the
plant. It is collected from April to November every year.
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Morphological characteristics
• Flakes – white or pale yellowish white
• Size: 25x12x2 mm in size
• Shape: thin, flattened ribbon like flakes, more or less curved
• Odour: odourless
• Taste: mucilaginous
• Horny, translucent with transverse & longitudinal ridges
• Fracture: short
• Soluble in Water–swells to homogenous, adhesive & gelatinous
mass
• Insoluble in alcohol
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Chemical constituents
• It contains water soluble portion of Tragacanth which is know as
tragacathin, constituting about 8 – 10 % gum. With water
insoluble portion is know as bassorin(60 – 70%).
• Contain 15% methoxy group which swells in water
• The product of hydrolysis of tragacath are galacto uronic acid,
D-galactopyranose, L-arabino-rhamnose and D- xylopyranose.
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• Sulphated ash – not more than 4.0%
• Foreign organic matter – not more than 1.0%
• Moisture content – not more than 15.0%
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Identification tests
1) When solution of tragacanth is boiled with few drops of 10%
aqueous ferric chloride solution deep yellow ppt is formed.
2) A stringy ppt is formed by dissolving tragacanth and ppted
copper oxide in conc. ammonium hydroxide
3) When it is warmed with sodium hydroxide solution canary
yellow colour is developed with strong iodine solution it gives
green colour.
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Uses
• Demulcent, emolient
• Modern pharmaceutical uses include an adhesive agent for
pills and tablets
• Binding agent for tablets & excipients in pills
• Emulsifying oil droplets in lotions, creams and pastes.
• Thickening agent, suspending agent with acacia
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• Preparation of cosmetics and toothpaste to jellies and salad
dressings.
• It is also used in syrups, sauces, liqueurs, candy, ice cream.
• Industrial uses, including cloth finishing, printing and
waterproofing of fabrics.
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SODIUM ALGINATE
Synonym: Algin, sod. Polymannuronate
Biological source
• Sodium alginate – sodium salt of alginic acid
• alginic acid – polyuronic acid composed of reduced
mannuronic and glucoronic acid – obtain from algal growth
of species of family: Phaeophyceae
• Common species – macrocystis pyrifera, laminaria
hyperborea, laminaria digitata, ascohyllum nodosum
• It is purified carbohydrate extracted from brown sea weed
(algae) by treatment of dilute alkali
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Geographical source
Atlantic & pacific oceans, coastal lines of japan, USA, canada,
australia & scotland
India – near coast of saurashtra, largest production – USA & UK
History
• Discovered by stanford in 1880, first production begin in 1929
in USA, since than produced in UK, france, norway & japan
• Present algin production more than 15000 tonnes per annum
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Preparation
• The brown coloured algae is used for extraction of alginic acid.
• The colour is due to carotenoid pigment present in it.
• Alginic acid is present in the cell wall.
• The sea weeds are harvested, dried, milled and extracted with dil.
Sodium carbonate solution which results in a pasty mass.
• It is then diluted to separated insoluble matter.
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• Soft water is only used for extraction purposes., so as to avoid in
compatibilities.
• It is treated with calcium chloride or sulphuric acid for conversion
into either calcium alginate or insoluble alginic acid, which is
collected and purified by thorough washing.
• If calcium is used, it is treated with HCL. Alginic acid so collected
is treated with sodium carbonate for neutralization and conversion
into sodium salt.
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Morphology
• Colour: white to buff
• Odourless
• Tasteless
• Coarse or fine powder
• Loose of 20% its wt. on drying
• Incompatible with Ca salt, phenyl mercuric acetate & nitrate,
crystal violet, alcohol in conc. above 5% & heavy metals
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• Precipitate below pH 3
• Alginic acid- linear co-polymer, contain D-mannopyranosyluronic
acid linked with L- glucopyranosyluronic unit
• Soluble in water
• Insoluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform & strong acids
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Identification tests:
1) The aqueous solution of sodium alginate forms
copious ppt with calcium chloride solution.
2) 1% solution in water forms heavy geltinous ppt
with dil. Sulphuric acid.
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Uses
• Preparations of paste, cream
• Thickening & stabilising emulsion
• Good suspending & thickening agent but poor emulsifying
agent
• Binding & disintegrating agent in tablets & lozenges
• Food industry – preparation of jellies, ice creams, etc.
• Textile industry
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• It is sterilize by autoclave – pharmaceutical purpose
• Not stored in metal container
• Preserved by addition of 0.1% of chloroxylenol, chlorocresol,
benzoic acid or parabens
• K, Al, Ca alginates – medicinally
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PECTIN
• Pectin are polyuronides and consist of mixture of pectic
substances like protopectin, pectin, pectinic acid and calcium
pectate.
• They are obtained from the inner portion of the rind of citrus
fruits or other vegetative matter, such as sun-flower, papaya, etc.
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Manufacture of pectin
• The preserved or fresh lemon peels are heated with 20 times its
weight of water at 90oC for 30 min.
• The pH required for maximum extraction is 3.5 to 4.0. The pH
can be adjusted by lactic citric or tartaric acids.
• The peels after boiling are pressed and solution is
cleared by settling or centrifugation.
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• Starch, and proteins are removed by suitable Enzymic hydrolysis
and the solution is heated to deactivate the enzymes and
decolorized with active carbon or any other suitable agent.
• Pure pectin is precipitated out by using water soluble organic
solvent, washed again and dried in vacuum.
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• Pectin is incompatible with calcium, so necessary precaution
should be taken to keep it away from its metallic salts through out
the process of extraction.
• It is packed in the containers or polyethylene bags for marketing.
Chemical constituents
• Total hydrolysis of pectin yields D-galacturonic acid, methyl
alcohol, small amount of galactose and arabinose.
• Pectin should not contain more than 7% of methoxy groups and
78% of galacturonic acid, calculated with reference to the ash-
free and dried substance.
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Identification test
• 10% aqueous solution forms stiff gel on cooling.
• To 5 ml 1% solution, add 1 ml 2% solution of potassium
hydroxide and set aside at room temperature for 15 min.
• A transparent gel or semi-gel forms (distinction from
tragacanth). Acidify with dil. HCL acid and shake well.
• A voluminous, colourless, gelatinous ppt forms which
when boiled becomes white and flocculent.
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Acacia
Synonyms
Gum acacia, Gum arabic, Indian Gum
Biological source
Indian gum is the dried gummy exudation obtained from the stem
and branches of Acacia arabica.
Family: leguminosae
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Geographical source:
India, Sri lanka, sudan, Morocco and Africa.
In India- Punjab, Rajasthan, Western ghats. About 85% of world
supply of gum acacia is from sudan.
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Cultivation and Collection
• It is an common member of dry monsoon forests of India.
• It is an evergreen tree with short trunk.
• Gum is collected from wild grown plants, made free of bark and
foreign organic matter, dried in sun, which also results- in partial
bleaching of gum.
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Morphological characteristics:
Colour- Tears are cream- brown to red in colour, powder is light
brown in colour
Odour – Odourless
Taste- Bland and mucilaginous
Size and Shape- Irregular brown tears of varying size
Solubility- soluble in water, watery solution is viscous and acidic.
Insoluble in alcohol
Moisture- not more than 15%
Ash- not more than 5%
Indian gum should not contain tannin, starch and dextrin.
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Chemical constituents
It consists principally of arabin, mixture of calcium, magnesium and
potassium salts of arabic acid.
On hydrolysis gives L- arabinose, L- rhamnose, D- galactose, D-
glucuronic acid.
It also contains an enzyme oxidase and peroxidase.
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Identification tests
1. Solution of lead subacetate give gelatinises property with
aq. Solution of Indian gum.
2. Drug solution + ruthenium red does not
produce pink colour
3. Drug solution + H2O2 + benzidine in alcohol
blue colour is produced
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Uses
•Demulcent
•Suspending agent, emulsifying agent for fixed oils, volatile oils,
liquid paraffin
•Binding agent for the preparation of lozenges, pastilles, compressed
tablets
•In combination with gelatin, it is used to form coacervates for
microencapsulation of drugs.
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Substituents and adulterant:
It is adulterated with gum ghatti, obtained from anogeissus latifolia
belonging to family combretaceae.